Chapter 23: The Vietnam War

Chapter 23 focuses on America's longest and only losing war—the Vietnam War—and how it split American society into two opposing camps.

Section 1 describes the events in Southeast Asia that brought the United States into the Vietnam War. United States involvement in Vietnam grew out of the colonialism of the 1940s and the cold war of the 1950s. Presidents Truman, Eisenhower, and Kennedy sought to contain the spread of communism in Southeast Asia by supporting anti-Communist governments in Vietnam. First the United States sent military aid, then military advisors. When Johnson became president, he decided to send combat troops. All South Vietnam became a war zone as U.S. troops launched air strikes, and the fiercely nationalistic Vietcong engaged in guerilla warfare.

Section 2 discusses the dramatic and troubling events of 1968 and how they changed the public's perception of the war. The year began with a stunning attack by Communist forces that shook the nation's confidence in South Vietnam. Television coverage of the retaliation horrified Americans and challenged U.S. policy. Johnson shocked the country by announcing he would not seek reelection. Many activists lost hope when two prominent leaders fell to assassins' bullets. By the time violence erupted at the Democratic convention in August, many Americans were beginning to reject liberalism and yearn for order. With Richard Nixon's victory over two other presidential candidates, the nation hoped that a new conservative administration would end the war and restore peace at home.

Section 3 examines how student activism emerged in the early 1960s and turned public opinion against the war. College students throughout the country embraced the liberal agitation stirred up by the civil rights movement and growing opposition to the Vietnam War. After demanding and winning the right to hold political activities, these young radical activists staged sit-ins, teach-ins, and mass demonstrations. They questioned the draft and refused to serve. As the war dragged on, the antiwar movement grew to include other groups, and key leaders began to speak against U.S. involvement in the war. Soon the entire nation was forced to take sides in the war—whether to resist it or support it. The media's growing criticisms, a shocking massacre, and an incursion into a neutral country all helped to solidify antiwar sentiment. Deadly confrontations on two college campuses marked the climax of a decade of student protests.

Section 4 describes the events that brought an end to the Vietnam War. Answering antiwar sentiment, President Nixon promised to secure an honorable peace in the Vietnam War. His strategy called for the South Vietnamese to take a more active role in fighting the war as he secretly expanded bombing campaigns. When bombings failed to bring the North Vietnamese to the bargaining table, Nixon ordered troops into Cambodia. At home, the expanded war effort sparked widespread criticism and violent demonstrations. Secret foreign policy moves and a Defense Department report undermined the government's credibility. Finally, peace talks that had begun in 1968 delivered a signed treaty in 1973. But the treaty would not bring peace in Southeast Asia, would not recover the enormous losses of human life, would not heal veterans' and refugees' suffering, and would not recoup Americans' optimism.